VFR Obstacle Clearance Requirements

Once again, there are various exceptions when it comes to minimum altitudes and distances, based on the operating context.  Let's see if we can make some sense of it all.

Except for the purpose of take-off or landing....

CAR 704.23 (Commuter)

• Day: must be at least 500 AGL and 500 feet horizontal from any obstacle
• Night: must be at least 1000 feet above any obstacle within 3 miles of route

CAR 705.32:  (Airline)

• Day: must be at least 1000 AGL and 1000 feet horizontal from any obstacle
• Night: must be at least 1000 feet above any obstacle within 5 miles of route (2000 feet in mountainous regions)

Black Boxes

The Flight Data and Cockpit Voice Recorders (so called 'black-boxes' even though they are actually orange) provide invaluable information to investigators as they try to piece together the sequence of events leading up to an accident.  

CAR 605.33 Flight Data Recorder and Cockpit Voice Recorder Requirements

• FDR: required for multi-engine turbine aircraft (see regulation for specifics and variations based on passenger configurations)
• CVR: required for multi-engine turbine aircraft configured for 6 or more passengers and two pilots

CAR 605.34 Use of Flight Data Recorders and Cockpit Voice Recorders

• Operation 
• FDR: continuously from take-off to landing
• CVR: continuously from application of electrical power prior to flight until removal of electrical power following flight
• Without a MEL, either the FDR or CVR may be unserviceable for up to 90 days after day of failure, as long as the other one is serviceable, and the date of failure is recorded in the aircraft technical records. 

Air Law Grab-Bag

Another random selection of Air Law trivia...

CAR 605.93 Technical Records - General
(4) Every person who brings into use a new volume of an existing technical record shall make the entries relating to the preceding volume that are necessary to ensure that an unbroken chronological record is maintained.

CAR 705.22 Operational Flight Plan

• PIC shall ensure a copy is left at a POD in accordance with procedures specified in COM
• airline shall keep a copy including any amendments for at least 90 days
• for commuters, the period is defined in the COM (CAR 704.17)
• if cruise segment is less than 30 minutes, may use an informal operational flight plan (CAR 725.22 and CAR 724.17)

CAR 705.94 Portable Oxygen

A 15 minute supply (with masks) must be available for each flight attendant on pressurized aircraft in airline operations above FL250. 

Reference AIM RAC 6.4.5

Along off-airways tracks, the airspace to be protected is 45 NM each side of that portion of the track which is beyond navigational and signal coverage range. 

Reference AIM RAC 8.1 IFR Enroute
If while on an IFR flight plan your ETA for a reporting point changes by more than 3 minutes, advise the appropriate ATS unit ASAP.

Manuals

CARs 704.122 and 705.136 Distribution of Company Operations Manual

• provide copies of appropriate sections to each crew member, ground operations and maintenance personnel
• alternatively place a copy in each aircraft
• each person with a copy must keep it up-to-date and accessible

CARs 704.123 and 705.137 Aircraft Operating Manual

• a copy must be on board each aircraft

CARs 704.124 and 705.138 Standard Operating Procedures

• required when aircraft is required to be operated by 2 or more pilots
• a copy must be on board each aircraft

For Airlines (705), AOMs and SOPs must be submitted to Minister. 

Routes in Uncontrolled Airspace

CAR 704.29 and CAR 705.37: No person shall, in uncontrolled airspace, conduct an IFR flight or a night VFR flight on a route other than an air route unless the air operator establishes the route in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Related Standards CAR 724.29 and CAR 725.37:

• IFR MOCAs: minimum 2000 feet above highest obstacle within 10 miles of centreline
• Night VFR: minimum 1000 feet above highest obstacle within 3 miles of centreline

Aviation Occurences

Reference AIM GEN 3.3

Accidents:

• a person is killed or sustains serious injury
• on board
• direct contact with any part
• exposure to jet blast / rotor downwash / prop wash
• the aircraft sustains structural failure or damage which adversely affects the structural strength of the aircraft
• the aircraft is missing or inaccessible

Mandatory Reportable Incidents:
Incident for aircraft with MCTOW greater than 2250 kg or operating under Part VII where:

• engine fails or is shut-down as precautionary measure
• power train transmission gearbox malfunction
• smoke detected or fire occurs
• difficulties controlling aircraft (malfunction, weather, wake turbulence, vibration)
• aircraft fails to remain on runway, lands with gear retracted, drags a wingtip or engine pod
• crew incapacitation which poses a threat to safety
• depressurization requiring emergency descent
• fuel shortage requiring diversion or landing priority
• incorrect type or contaminated fuel
• collision, risk of collision, loss of separation
• emergency requiring priority handling or equipment on standby
• slung load released unintentionally or as precautionary measure
• dangerous good released in or from aircraft

How Far and How High?

There are so many different regulations that specify distances, heights, etc.  It's easy to get some of them mixed up.  So... time for a quiz to see which ones you know!  Questions here; answers and references in the links provided.

A low level airway is controlled airspace and extends from ________ AGL up to ___________. 
(Answer here)

A low level air-route is Class ___ airspace and extends from ____________ up to __________.
(Answer here)

A control zone normally has a _____ NM radius and the normal vertical extent is up to ______ AAE.
(Answer here)

When an aircraft is on a defense flight plan, the PIC shall revise the estimated time and point of entry/exit into the ADIZ if they vary by _____ minutes of _____ NM. 
(Answer here)

No person shall conduct a take-off in an aeroplane if the weight of the aeroplane is greater than the weight specified in the aircraft flight manual as allowing a net take-off flight path that clears all obstacles by at least ___ feet vertically or at least ___ feet horizontally within the aerodrome boundaries, and by at least ___ feet horizontally outside those boundaries.
(Answer here)

An airline operator may not operate an aeroplane at a weight which will not allow it to attain with any engine inoperative, a net flight path which has a positive slope at _____ feet above all terrain and obstructions within ___ NM on either side of the intended track. 
(Answer here)

The vertical dimensions of the Arctic Control Area (ACA) are FL____ and above.
The vertical dimensions of the Northern Control Area (NCA) are FL____ and above.
(Answer here)

The vertical dimensions of the Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace (CMNPSA) within the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) are FL___ to FL___.
(Answer here)

The vertical dimensions of RVSM airspace is FL___ to FL___ inclusive.
(Answer here)

The vertical dimensions of the North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace (NAT MNPSA) are FL___ to FL___.
(Answer here)

Throughout the North Atlantic (NAT) Region, airspace at and above FL___ is Class __ airspace, while airspace below this level is Class __ airspace.
(Answer here)

An aircraft operating in the vicinity of an active forest fire should operate clear of the area by a minimum altitude of _____ AGL and a minimum distance of ___ NM.
(Answer here)

What a Drag

Drag is the resistance of an object to moving through the air. 
There are two main types of drag:

INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is a by-product of producing lift.
Induced drag decreases with velocity.
It increases with weight and altitude (for a given speed)
It increases whenever the AOA increases.
It is related to the design of the wing and can be reduced by high aspect ratios and winglets.

PARASITE DRAG
All objects feel parasite drag when moving through a fluid.  
Parasite drag increases with velocity.
It decreases with altitude.
It is not affected by changes in AOA.
There are three types of parasite drag:

• Skin Friction: friction between air and surface of object
• Form Drag: drag resulting from air moving around a particular shape (i.e. is it streamlined?)
• Interference Drag: flows over two joined surfaces interfere with each other (i.e. wing and fuselage)

Pressurization

Reference Turbine Pilot's Flight Manual Chapter 5

HOW DOES IT WORK?
Bleed air from the engines is continually distributed to the cabin.  Outflow valves modulate the exhaust of cabin air to obtain the desired level of pressurization.  

DEFINITIONS

• Maximum Differential (max diff): the maximum ratio of cabin pressure to outside (ambient) air pressure that the aircraft can sustain.
• Positive Pressure Relief Valves (Safety Valves): vent excess pressure overboard if max diff is exceeded (prevents overpressurization)
• Negative Pressure Relief Valves: ensure cabin never falls below ambient pressure
• Dump Valves: allow pilots to manually vent in an emergency (i.e. smoke)

• Squat Switch: ensures aircraft is depressurized on the ground

Altimeter Setting and Operating Procedures

Reference AIM RAC 2.11 and 2.12

ALTIMETER SETTING REGION

CAR 602.35 

• Departure: altimeter setting at aerodrome, or if not available the elevation of the aerodrome
• Enroute: altimeter setting of nearest station along route
• Arrival: altimeter setting at destination

STANDARD PRESSURE REGION

CAR 602.36

• Departure: altimeter setting at aerodrome, or if not available the elevation of the aerodrome
• Enroute: immediately prior to reaching the intended flight level, set 29.92
• Arrival: altimeter setting at destination
• Holding: once descending below lowest flight level of hold, altimeter setting at destination

TRANSITION BETWEEN REGIONS

CAR 602.37

• the simplest way to think about this is to always change the altimeter in the standard pressure region, whether it is a lateral or vertical transition

Air Law Potpourri

I went through some practice questions about Air Law this morning and it emphasized my need to study even more!  Here are some things I'd forgotten:

TRAINING

• Instrument Training
• CAR 425.21: with a CPL or ATPL, you may give a licensed pilot instrument training towards an IFR rating provided you have and instrument rating and:
• instructor rating OR
• 500 hours PIC of which 100 must be on the same group of aircraft used for training (and for Group 1, at least 10 hours on the type used for training)

AIRSPACE

• Class F Restricted
• CAR 601.04: A pilot may fly through an active area:
• if authorized by appropriate person
• if it doesn't pose hazard to aircraft
• if it doesn't jeopardize national security

• CAR 602.145: VFR Flight in ADIZ
• VFR flight within or into the ADIZ requires a Defense Flight Plan or Defense Flight Itinerary to be filed.
• Must revise time/point of entry if more than +/- 5 minutes or 20 NM.

AIRPORTS

• Take-off Alternates (i.e. weather is above take-off minima but below landing minima for that aerodrome):
• CAR 704.26 Commuter: if authorized on air operator certificate
• CAR 705.34 Airline: within 60 minutes with OEI (twin) or 120 minutes with OEI (three or four engines or ETOPS)

• Dispatch Limitations:
• CAR 704.49 and CAR 705.60: must be able to land at destination and alternate within
• Turbo-jets: 60% of landing distance available (LDA)
• Turbo-props: 70% of LDA
• must be suitable runway for aircraft and conditions, and can't take credit for more than 50% of anticipated headwind or less than 150% of tailwind
• CAR 704.50 and CAR 705.61: for turbo-jets, if wet runway expected, the calculated runway requirement must be increased by an additional 15%. (Can be less if AFM includes info, but not shorter than what is required by 704.49 / 705.60).

SYSTEMS

• Altitude Alerting System or Device
• CAR 605.36: required for turbo-jets, with these exceptions:
• MEL, or if no MEL, being ferried to location with device
• flight tests, PPCs, training
• if failure after TO, until it reaches location where it can be repaired

• GPWS
• CAR 605.37: required for 704 and 705 turbo-jets with MCTOW of more than 15000 kg (33069 lbs) and authorized to carry more than 10 passengers (exception - MEL). 

• Standby Attitude Indicator
• CAR 605.41: required for Part VII turbo-jets (some exceptions).  Required for Part VII turbo-props configured for 10 or more passengers.
• CAR 625.41: must be installed on turbojet aircraft, and operate for 30 minutes in the event of a complete electrical system malfunction

Personnel Requirements - Airline

CAR 705.103 Designation of PIC and SIC
Designated by air operator.

CAR 705.104 Flight Attendant Requirements
Discussed in another post.

CAR 705.106 Pilot Qualifications

• appropriate license, ratings, endorsements
• within past 90 days:
• 3 take-offs and landings at controls
• 5 sectors
• training requirements
• valid PPC
• valid line check or line indoc
• fulfilled operator's training
• exceptions: training or ferry flight or authorized on air operator certificate

CAR 705.107 Flight Engineer and Second Officer Qualifications
Here are the basics:

• appropriate license and endorsements
• check ride with operator, or 50 hours in past 6 months on type
• completed line indoc
• fulfilled operator's training

CAR 705.108 Crew Pairing
Based on combined experience.

CAR 705.111 Route and Aerodrome Qualifications
Must have been flight crew or observer along same route within the last 12 months or else have received training and demonstrated adequate knowledge.

CAR 705.113 Validity Period

• line check valid for 1 year
• PPC valid for 6 months (1 year if approved 6-month recurrent training completed)
• dispatcher competency check valid for 1 year
• if renewed within 90 days prior, new date is 6/12 months after old date
• validity can be extended up to 60 days

Personnel Requirements - Commuter

CAR 704.106 Minimum Crew (Commuter)
If you have 10 or more passengers, or are carrying passengers in IFR flight, two pilots are required.

CAR 704.107 Designation of PIC and SIC
Designated by air operator.

CAR 704.108 Flight Crew Member Qualifications
Here are the basics:

• appropriate license and ratings
• 3 take-offs and landings within the past 90 days
• valid PPC
• ground training complete
• exceptions: training or ferry flight or authorization on air operator certificate

Other important things:

• to fly IFR with passengers as PIC, you need at least 1200 TT
• to fly VFR as PIC, you need at least 500 TT
• to flight Night VFR with passengers as PIC, you need an instrument rating

CAR 704.109 Qualifications of Operational Control Personnel

• requires training and demonstration of knowledge
• 3 months recency requirement

CAR 704.110 Check Authority

CAR 704.111 Validity Period
PPCs are valid for one year.  They can be renewed up to 90 days prior with same expiration.  They can be extended for up to 60 days.

Bumping along

Reference AIM MET 3.7 Turbulence Reporting Criteria

Intensity:

• light
• turbulence: momentary, slight changes in altitude/attitude
• chop: slight, rapid, rhythmic bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude/attitude
• moderate
• turbulence: greater than light, aircraft remains in positive control, variations in IAS
• chop: greater than light, rapid bumps/jolts without appreciable changes in aircraft altitude/attitude
• severe
• large, abrupt changes in altitude/attitude
• large variations in IAS
• momentary loss of control

Frequency:

• occasional (<1/3 of the time)
• intermittent
• continuous (>2/3 of the time)

Report:

• location
• time
• intensity
• in or near cloud
• altitude
• type of aircraft
• duration (if applicable)

High level turbulence not associated with cumuliform clouds should be reported as CAT.

De-icing and Anti-icing

Types of Fluids

• Type I
• minimum 80% glycol
• relatively low viscosity
• very limited anti-icing protection against re-freezing but does not protect against further accumulation
• Type II
• minimum 50% glycol
• high viscosity
• effective anti-icing
• for aircraft with Vr > 100 kts; shears off on take-off
• potential to lose effectiveness if improperly applied
• Type III
• properties between Type I and Type II
• for aircraft with Vr < 100 kts
• Type IV
• same fluid specifications as Type II, but longer holdover times
• dyed green to aid consistent application

Holdover Time

• the estimated time that the application of de-icing/anti-icing fluid will prevent the formation of frost, ice, or the accumulation of snow on treated surfaces of an aircraft
• begins when the final application of de-icing/anti-icing fluid commences, and expires when the fluid loses its effectiveness

Frozen Contaminants

Reference AIM AIR 2.12 Flight Operations in Winter

Factors affecting contamination and hold-over time:

• ambient temperature
• aircraft surface temperature
• de-icing / anti-icing fluid type, temperature and concentration
• relative humidity
• wind speed and direction

Cold-Soaking Phenomenon

• fuel temperature affects wing surface temperature
• cold-soaking at altitude means fuel in tanks may be much colder than ambient temperature after landing
• clear ice or frost may form on some aircraft on wing areas above fuel tanks, especially in conditions of high relative humidity

Volcanic Ash

You may recall the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajokull in April 2010 caused massive disruptions to air travel in Europe.

Reference AIM AIR 2.6 and AIM MET 2.5

There are numerous hazards associated with volcanic ash:

• damage to surfaces, windshields, powerplants
• read about KLM 867 which had a quadruple engine failure near Anchorage Alaska in 1989
• contamination of heating, ventilation, hydraulic and electronic systems
• adverse effects on weight and balance

Ash can rapidly reach heights in excess of FL600, and weather radar is not effective in detecting it.

The best preventative measure is avoidance, although this could be difficult in IMC or at night.  "St. Elmo's fire is usually a telltale sign of a night encounter, although rapid onset of engine problems may be the first indication."  Refer to PIREPs, SIGMETS and NOTAMs and advice ATC if an eruption or ash is observed to help warn others.