Radiocommunications

The key to this section is common sense and good airmanship (as with so many other parts of flying!).

CAR 602.136 Continuous Listening Watch

• maintain listening watch on appropriate frequency
• establish communication with appropriate ATC, FSS, etc. when required

CAR 602.137 Two-way Radio communication Failure in IFR Flight

• in controlled airspace:
• maintain listening watch on appropriate frequency
• squawk 7600
• attempt to contact other ATS facilities or aircraft to relay info
• if unable to make contact, comply with procedures in CAP / CFS (unless other procedures were given by ATC)

Reference also AIM RAC 6.3.2:

• if VMC, or if VMC is encountered, remain VFR and land as soon as practicable (not the same as 'as soon as possible' - use good judgement)
• if IMC:
• Route:
• route last assigned and acknowledged
• if being vectored, go directly to fix/route/airway specified in clearance
• if no assigned route, use advised/expected
• if no advised/expected, use what has filed on flight plan
• Altitude: use highest of:
• altitude last assigned and acknowledged
• minimum IFR altitude
• expected in a further clearance
• Descent and approach: commence descent at most recent time of:
• calculated ETA
• ETA last notified and acknowledged
• EAT last received and acknowledged
• if assigned a hold, commence approach at EAT or EFC
• if cleared for a STAR, proceed to FAF via
• published routing
• from radar vectors direct fix for straight-in or full procedure
• CLOSED RNAV STAR as published for straight-in
• OPEN RNAV STAR as published to DTW and then turn to FACF to intercept for straight-in

Reference AIM COM 5.15: As a last resort, PIC may attempt to contact ATS using conventional cellphone or satellite phone.

CAR 602.138 Two-way Radio communication Failure in VFR Flight

• in class B, C or D:
• leave airspace (by landing or else shortest route)
• squawk 7600
• inform ATC ASAP of actions taken

Reference also AIM RAC 4.4.8: if you are outside of class B, C, D, you may enter and land if there is no nearby suitable aerodrome available.  See NORDO arrival procedures in AIM RAC 4.4.5.

Formation, Aerobatics, and jumping out of a perfectly good airplane

I flew skydivers one summer.  It's hard to say it was a job... more like a volunteer position.  But I never jumped myself.  Oh yes, I think it would be fun and thrilling, but it's also quite risky and I was content to remain in the aircraft (especially since I was the pilot!)

CAR 602.25 Entering or Leaving an Aircraft in Flight

• need permission of PIC
• PIC shall not permit unless
• leaving using a parachute
• CAR 702.19 (helicopter ops)
• CAR 603.02 (special aviation event certificate) or CAR 603.67 (special flight operations certificate)

CAR 602.26 Parachute Descents

• prohibited in controlled airspace / air routes, and over built-up areas and open-air assemblies unless you have a special flight operations - parachuting certificate as per CAR 603.37

This takes us into the realm of airshows, and while they are not the only place where formation flight and aerobatics take place, this would be a good time to talk about such activities.  This is also covered in AIM RAC 1.11.

CAR 603.01 Certificate Requirements for Special Aviation Events

• cannot conduct a special aviation event unless you comply with the provisions of a special flight operations certificate - special aviation event

CAR 602.24 Formation Flight

• PICs must make arrangements beforehand
• if in a control zone, PICs must coordinate with ATC

CAR 602.27 Aerobatic Maneuvewrs - Prohibited Areas and Flight Conditions

• No person operating an aircraft shall conduct aerobatic manoeuvres
• over a built-up area or an open-air assembly of persons;
• in controlled airspace, except in accordance with a special flight operations certificate issued pursuant to section 603.67;
• when flight visibility is less than three miles; or
• below 2,000 feet AGL, except in accordance with a special flight operations certificate issued pursuant to section 603.02 or 603.67.

CAR 602.28 Aerobatic Maneuvers with Passengers

• PIC must have:
• at least 10 hours dual instruction conducting aerobatics or 20 hours conducting aerobatics
• at least 1 hour conducting aerobatics in the previous 6 months

Alcohol and Drugs

CAR 602.03 Alcohol and Drugs - Crew Members

• 8 hours bottle to throttle
• Zero tolerance for impaired flying

Alcohol consumption can increase the susceptibility of an individual to hypoxia.  Remember, there is no magic cure for removing alcohol from your bloodstream.  Such a reduction can only be attained over the passage of time.  

CAR 602.04 Alcohol and Drugs - Passengers

• cannot drink your own alcohol (must be served / provided by operator)
• operator must not serve if passenger is already impaired by drugs/alcohol to extent as to be a safety hazard
• operator must not allow a person with impaired faculties to board aircraft
• exception: passenger has been administered drug for medical reasons and is under supervision

Clean Aircraft Concept

Reference AIM AIR 2.12 Flight Operations in Winter

Wing contamination is serious business.  Ice with the thickness and texture of sandpaper on the surfaces of an aircraft could decrease lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%.  As ice accumulates on a wing, the stalling speed increases and the angle at which the wing will stall decreases.

Clean Aircraft Concept:

• refers to take-off being prohibited when frost, snow or ice is adhering to any critical surface of the aircraft

Critical Surfaces refers to:

• wings
• control surfaces
• propellers
• horizontal stabilizers
• vertical stabilizers
• upper surface of fuselage in the case of aircraft with rear-mounted engines

CAR 602.11 Aircraft Icing

• no person shall attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost, ice, or snow adhering to any of its critical surfaces
• exception: frost on underside of wing caused by cold-soaked fuel (refer to manufacturer's instructions)
• take-off in icing conditions
• Part 705: PIC (or person designated by operator) must inspect immediately prior to take-off (or operator has established aircraft inspection program)
• Part VII other than subpart 5: operator has established aircraft inspection program  
• report observed ice to PIC (or designated person) so they can inspect
• PIC must inform other crew members of intention to de-ice/anti-ice

Approach Bans

It seems that Approach Ban regulations are full of IFs ANDs and BUTs...  This is a classic example of there always being an exception to the rule!!

For some helpful examples, reference AIM RAC 9.19.2.

CAR 602.129 Approach Bans - General
(This does not apply to Part VII aircraft - see below)

• RVR minima for aeroplanes:
• if RVR A and B
• RVR A < 1200 ft and RVR < 600 ft
• if only RVR A or B
• either < 1200 ft
• If RVR is below minimums, you cannot continue an instrument approach in an IFR aircraft unless:
• aircraft has passed FAF (if no FAF, aircraft has intercepted final approach course)
• training flight and landing not intended
• RVR is fluctuating above and below
• ground visibility is reported as at least 1/4 mile
• PIC is conducting precision approach to CAT III minima
• (5) No PIC of an IFR aircraft shall commence a non-precision approach, an APV or a CAT I or CAT II precision approach to an airport where low-visibility procedures are in effect

CAR 602.130 Approach Bans - Category III

(This does not apply to Part VII aircraft - see below)

• (2) No person shall continue a CAT III precision approach in an IFR aircraft beyond the FAF inbound or, where there is no FAF, the point where the final approach course is intercepted, unless the RVR reported is equal to or greater than the minimum RVR specified in the Canada Air Pilot in respect of the runway or surface of intended approach for the instrument approach procedure conducted.

CAR 700.10 Approach Bans - Non Precision, APV, and CAT I Precision

• RVR minima change based on CAP advisory visibility, for example:
• CAP 1/2 (2600) >> RVR 3/8 (1600)
• CAP 3/4 (4000) >> RVR 5/8 (3000)
• CAP 1 (5000) >> RVR 3/4 (4000)
• If no RVR, use runway vis.  South of 60: if no runway vis, use ground vis. 
• If below minimums, you cannot continue a non-precision approach, an APV or a CAT I precision approach in an IFR aircraft unless:
• aircraft has passed FAF (if no FAF, aircraft has intercepted final approach course)
• training flight and landing not intended
• RVR is fluctuating above and below
• South of 60 with no RVR or runway vis: ground visibility is fluctuating above and below
• localized phenomenon affecting ground visibility
• approach is conducted in accordance with 703.41, 704.37, or 705.48
• exceptions made based on operator certificate, 2-crew ops, aircraft equipment (FD / AP), runway lighting, etc. 
• different tables:
• CAP 1/2 (2600) >> RVR 1/4 (1200)
• CAP 3/4 (4000) >> RVR 3/8 (2000)
• CAP 1 (5000) >> RVR 1/2 (2600)
• (4) No pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft operated under this Part shall commence a non-precision approach, an APV or a CAT I precision approach to an airport where low-visibility procedures are in effect.

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

Reference AIM SAR 3.0

Categories of ELTs

• A or AD: automatic ejectable or automatic deployable
• F or AF: fixed or automatic fixed
• AP: automatic portable
• P: personal
• W or S: water-activated or survival

CAR 605.38 ELT

• relevance to ATPL: large multi-engine turbojet airplanes engaged in air transport service with passengers require two ELTs (type W or S) when operating over water at a distance from land which requires life rafts (recall CAR 602.63 for life raft requirements)

CAR 605.39 Use of ELTs

• you can operate without a serviceable ELT if it is removed and repaired ASAP and the aircraft is placarded.
• ELT must be replaced within 10 days for 704 and 705 (30 days for everyone else)
• if you require 2 ELTs and they are both unserviceable: repair and replace the first ASAP, 10 days grace for the second

CAR 605.40 ELT Activation

• the only reason an ELT should be activated is in the event of an emergency, or testing (5 seconds only during the first 5 minutes of any hour)
• in the event of inadvertent activation, advise ATC / FSS / aerodrome and switch off

Note from AIM SAR 3.8: Unlike traditional 121.5/243 MHz ELTS, 406 MHz ELTs and their associated cockpit remote switch should be tested in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions only.

Pilot Response to Signals - notify nearest ATS:

• position, altitude and time first heard and contact lost
• ELT signal strength and did it cease suddenly or fade

Downed Aircraft Procedures:

• switch ELT on ASAP and do not cycle or switch off until positively located
• raising ELT from ground level to 8 ft may increase range by 20-40%
• if in an uninhabited area, stay with aircraft and ELT (more visible than people), have smoke/flares/signal fires read to attract SAR

Air Traffic Surveillance

Reference AIM COM 7.0

Recall: RADAR = RAdio Detection and Ranging (i.e. what's out there, which direction, and how far away?)

Primary Returns

• computes target positions by determining range and azimuth of reflected radio frequency energy
• passive - does not rely on info from aircraft
• uses:
• TSR (terminal surveillance radar) - short range (80 NM) to complement SSR
• PAR (Precision Approach Radar) - approach aid
• ASDE (Airport Surface Detection Equipment) - high def for aircraft and vehicles on manoeuvring areas
• Weather Radar - monitor hazardous weather conditions

Secondary Returns

• determines aircraft range by measuring the interval between transmitting an interrogation to and receiving a reply from an airborne transponder
• uses:
• enroute control - long range (200 NM)
• terminal control - in conjunction with PSR

ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast)

• uses aircraft avionics, satellites and/or ground infrastructure to relay a range of aircraft parameters to ATC
• automatic (no external stimulus required) but dependent (relies on aircraft avionics)

Canadian Domestic Routes

Reference AIM RAC 12.6

Use of Preferred Routes

• provides planning guidance, minimizes route changes, more efficient
• strongly encouraged, but not mandatory
• published in CFS

RNAV Routes

• Q-routes: high-level
• T-routes: low-level controlled 
• upward from 2200 AGL
• 10 NM each side of centre with MOCA protection 6 NM each side of centre
• L-routes: low-level uncontrolled
• MOCA protection 6 NM each side of centre
• Magnetic Reference Bearing published in SDA (reference only; RNAV systems will fly true course)

Position Reporting on Random Routes in NCA

• north-south: every 5 degrees of latitude with whole/half degree of longitude
• east-west (south of 75N): whole/half degrees of latitude with each 10 degrees of longitude
• east west (north of 75 N): whole/half degrees of latitude with each 20 degrees of longitude
• and of course, as requested by ATS

CMNPS = Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (Reference AIM RAC 12.5)

• Laterally this includes the ACA, NCA, and a small portion of the SCA
• Vertical dimensions are FL330 to FL410

Polar Routes (Reference AIM RAC 12.6.7)

• aircraft need CMNPS certification
• must file designated polar fixes on the Achorage/Russian border but are otherwise random in Canadian airspace
• routing should be filed with a fix every 5 degrees of latitude

Transoceanic Flights

GOTA, RVSM, CMNPS, SLOP... it looks like we're having Alphabet soup for lunch!

CAR 602.39 Transoceanic Flights
If you want to fly a single engine aircraft or multi-engine that cannot maintain flight in the event of an engine failure over the high seas:

• pilot needs an instrument rating
• aircraft equipped as per CAR 605.18 + HF radio + hypothermia protection for each person on board
• sufficient fuel as per CAR 602.88 + additional 10%

Reference AIM RAC 11.0 North Atlantic Operations and ICAO NAT Doc 007

NAT MNPS = North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications

• compliance with NAT MNPS airspace is required by all aircraft operating between 
• FL285 and FL420 AND
• between 27 N and the North Pole AND
• Oceanic Control Areas: Reykjavik, Gander, New York, Shanwick, Santa Maria
• aircraft must be equipped with two fully functioning long range navigation systems (LRNS).  A LRNS may be one of the following:
• one Inertial Navigation System (INS)
• one Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
• one navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System (IRS) or any other sensor system complying with the MNPS requirement.
• for eastbound and westbound traffic
• south of 70 N, the planned tracks shall be defined at each half or whole degree of latitude and each 10 degrees of longitude
• north of 70 N, the planned tracks shall be defined at latitudes expressed in degrees/minutes and each 20 degrees of longitude
• for northbound and southbound traffic
• the planned tracks shall be defined at latitudes spaced at 5 degrees and whole degrees of longitude

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

Reference AIM RAC 12.16

TCAS uses transponder interrogation and return signals to determine if aircraft around you pose a threat.  In order to detect these aircraft, they must be equipped with an operating Mode A, C, or S transponder.  Note: Mode A transponders will provide range and bearing only - no altitude info.

TCAS I provides TAs only.  
TCAS II provides TAs and RAs.

Some notes:

• Traffic Advisories (TAs) and Resolution Advisories (RAs) are only provided in the vertical plane (azimuth information is not reliably accurate)
• pilots should only alter their flight in the event of a RA (not a TA).  
• notify ATC ASAP of any deviation from your clearance.  Also notify them when you are clear of the conflict and returning to the cleared altitude
• See also CAR 602.31 (3) and (4) Compliance with ATC instructions and clearances

AIM RAC 12.16.6 (a) "Although TCAS will never be a complete substitute for a good lookout, good situational awareness and proper radio procedures, it has been proven to be a valuable tool in providing information on potential collision hazards."

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

Basic Principle: measures acceleration against time to determine speed and direction

How: uses accelerometers, in a gimbal assembly, to sense all vertical and horizontal accelerations to provide position and steering information.

Information Provided:

• steering information to autopilot
• aircraft attitude information for flight instruments
• antenna stabilization for airborne weather radar
• horizontal navigation data

GPS Approaches

Recall the basic operation of GPS: it triangulates your position by measuring distances from satellites by precise timing of radio signals.  4 satellites are required to obtain a 3D position fix. 

Reference AIM COM 3.14

GPS approaches are generally more efficient because they allow pilots to bypass procedure turns and proceed directly to the FAF.   GPS approaches must be retrieved from a current avionics database.  Pilot-generated waypoints are not approved for approach procedures.  There are two types of GPS approaches: stand-alone and overlay.

Stand-Alone

• approach design is usually based on a 'T' pattern 
• charted as "RNAV (GPS) RWY XX"

Overlay

• the underlying navaids do not have to be monitored
• you can use the GPS when the traditional navaid is out of service

There is always the requirement for a RAIM check (for +/- 15 minutes of the ETA) Without it, you have no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position!

If you want to take credit for a GPS approach at an alternate aerodrome (AIM COM 3.14.12):

• there must be a usable approach at the planned destination which is served by a functioning traditional aid
• the published LNAV minima are the lowest landing limits for which credit may be taken when determining alternate weather minima requirements (not LNAV/VNAV or LPV)
• approach-level RAIM must be available at the ETA for the alternate
• periodically during the flight, and at least once before the mid-point of the flight to the destination, verify that approach-level RAIM is expected to be available at the planned alternate at the ETA

Note: There are GPS and WAAS NOTAM files which can advise of outages / failures

Wind

Reference ACWM Chapters 5 and 11

Wind is the result of changes in pressure gradient.

• flows from High to Low 
• steeper gradient = stronger wind

Coriolis Effect

• the deflection of wind caused by the Earth's rotation
• varies from zero at equator to maximum strength at poles

Curvature Effect

• when isobars are curved, air moves in an arc >> centrifugal force
• the pressure gradient around lows is generally stronger than around highs

Friction

• As you climb from the surface to 3000 feet, the wind veers (clockwise change in direction) and increases.
• As you descend from 3000 feet to the surface, the wind backs (counterclockwise change in direction) and decreases.
• We must also keep in mind that land and water create different amounts of friction.  There is less friction over water, so wind would blow at less of an angle across isobars and at faster speeds. 

Squalls and Gusts

• characteristics of turbulent flight conditions
• Gusts >> rapid peaks and lulls
• Squalls >> sudden increase lasting for a minute or more, then a decrease

Diurnal Effects

• surface winds are usually stronger and gustier during the day
• Sea Breeze during the day (higher pressure over water than land)
• Land Breeze at night

Topographical Effects

• hilly and mountainous terrain can contribute to mechanical turbulence
• Anabatic winds flow upslope during the day when mountain slops facing the sun are heated
• Katabatic winds flow downslope
• warm = Chinook wind, warms at DALR
• cold = glacier wind, cooling by underlying ice

Wind Shear

• increased performance (headwind) >> airspeed increases
• encountering increased performance on glideslope >> would have to reduce power to recapture glidepath, then increase power to maintain due to stronger headwind
• decreased performance (tailwind) >> airspeed decreases

Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure Measurements

• Inches of mercury (Hg) >> for altimetry
• Hectopascals (hPa) and millibars (mb) >> for weather map analysis
• measured using a barometer (digital or aneroid type)

METARs give both an altimeter setting and a sea level pressure.  What's the difference?

• Station Pressure
• measured at the airport; the weight of the air above the station
• Altimeter Setting
• station level pressure reduced to MSL assuming ISA conditions
• MSL Pressure
• station pressure reduced to MSL using the average surface temperature for the last 12 hours
• useful in weather map analysis when patterns across different observation stations must be compared

And just for fun, here's 'Under Pressure' by Queen:

Pressure Levels

In my January 2 post about the Earth's atmosphere, I said "some things you just have to memorize" with regards to which pressures correspond to which levels of the ICAO standard atmosphere.  As it turns out, memorization is not required if you have a CX-2 flight computer (and possibly others, but this is the one I have)!   Here's how:

• press 'FLIGHT'
• select (1) Altitude
• select (3) Std Atmos
• enter the altitude
• read the OAT, as well as pressure in "Hg and mb!

Small wins :)

Lapse Rates and Stability

Adiabatic Processes

• no heat is added or removed from air
• rising air >> lower pressure >> expands >> temperature decreases
• sinking air >> higher pressure >> compresses >> temperature increases

Lapse Rates

• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): 3 C / 1000 ft
• Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR): 1.5 C / 1000 ft
• Average: 2 C / 1000 ft

• Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): indicates the temperature of the surrounding air; comparison to lapse rate of air parcel determines if it is stable or unstable
• shallow lapse rate compared to SALR: absolute stability
• lapse rate between DALR and SALR: conditional instability
• steeper lapse rate than DALR: absolute instability

Characteristics of Stable Air

• sustained low visibility (i.e. haze layers, drizzle, fog)
• continuous precipitation
• strato-form clouds (layers)
• steady winds

Characteristics of Unstable Air

• good visibility
• showery precipitation
• cumulo-form clouds (vertical development)
• gusty winds

DO YOU KNOW... why rising saturated air cool less rapidly than rising unsaturated air?

• heat is released during the condensation of water vapour

V Speeds

I knew the definitions of V1 and V2, but what about V3? Turns out we just call it something different on the Dash 8 - it's Vfri (flap retraction speed).  There are a ton of V Speeds, but I'll pick out some key ones. 

V1: engine failure recognition speed

• abort the take-off and bring the aircraft to a stop on the runway plus stopway OR
• continue and be at V2 at 35 feet above the departure end of the runway
• increases with weight

V2: take-off safety speed

• a referenced airspeed obtained after the aircraft lifts off and at which the required OEI climb performance can be achieved

Vmca: aim minimum control speed

• lowest calibrated airspeed at which control of an aircraft can be maintained following the failure of the critical engine with the remaining engine(s) operating at take-off power
• determined at gross weight with the C of G at the aft limit, flaps in take-off position, landing gear retracted, and the propeller windmilling if no autofeathering system is installed

Va: maneuvering speed

• maximum speed at which full deflection of the primary flight controls will not cause overstressing of the aircraft

Fuel Requirements

Fuel is probably one of the highest costs associated with the operation of an aircraft, so it makes sense that operators are always looking for ways to be more fuel efficient.  Extra fuel also means extra weight, which could otherwise be designated to paying passengers or cargo.  That being said, we know there are legal requirements for the minimum fuel on-board to cover various 'what if' scenarios.  

CAR 602.88 Fuel Requirements (General)

• Day VFR: destination + 30 min at cruise
• Night VFR: destination + 45 min at cruise

• IFR (prop)
• destination, approach, missed approach, alternate + 45 min
• if no alternate: destination, approach, missed approach + 45 min
• IFR (jet)
• destination, approach, missed approach, alternate + 30 min
• if no alternate: destination, approach, missed approach + 30 min

• All aircraft also need enough fuel to provide for:
• taxi, foreseeable delays prior to take-off
• weather
• foreseeable traffic delays
• loss of cabin pressure
• loss of engine at critical point
• any other foreseeable delays

CAR 704.20 Fuel Requirements (Commuter)
In addition to above,

• IFR
• descent to lower of single-engine service ceiling or 10000
• cruise at lower altitude to suitable aerodrome
• approach, missed approach
• hold for 30 min at 1500 AAE

CAR 705.25 Fuel Requirements (Airline)

• VFR: destination + 45 min at cruise

• IFR
• over designated routes / areas: destination + 5%
• descent to lower of single-engine service ceiling or 10000
• cruise at lower altitude to suitable aerodrome
• approach, missed approach
• hold for 30 min at 1500 AAE