Year-End Update

At the beginning of the year, I said that 2015 was going to be the year ATPL.  The November/December issue of the 99 News has an article by Donna Miller on the importance of setting goals.  She writes, ''If we are working toward our goals, we are getting the most out of each moment.  We are focused on our journeys toward our hearts' desires....'' Well, I knew what I wanted to achieve and had a plan to get there:

• SARON and SARMA exams
• Goal: study in the winter, write in the spring
• Achievement: both exams written by the beginning of April
• Night PIC XC time:
• Goal: 18 hours to complete, planned 12 in spring, 6 in fall
• Achievement: all 18 hours completed by beginning of June
• 1500 TT:
• Goal: finish by the end of the year (started 2015 with 990 hours)
• Achievement: did my last flight of the year on Monday and now total 1510 hours

All that's left now is to get my logbook certified and fill out the TC paperwork in January.  On that note, wishing you all a Merry Christmas and all the best in the New Year!

Manuals

CARs 704.122 and 705.136 Distribution of Company Operations Manual

• provide copies of appropriate sections to each crew member, ground operations and maintenance personnel
• alternatively place a copy in each aircraft
• each person with a copy must keep it up-to-date and accessible

CARs 704.123 and 705.137 Aircraft Operating Manual

• a copy must be on board each aircraft

CARs 704.124 and 705.138 Standard Operating Procedures

• required when aircraft is required to be operated by 2 or more pilots
• a copy must be on board each aircraft

For Airlines (705), AOMs and SOPs must be submitted to Minister. 

Routes in Uncontrolled Airspace

CAR 704.29 and CAR 705.37: No person shall, in uncontrolled airspace, conduct an IFR flight or a night VFR flight on a route other than an air route unless the air operator establishes the route in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Related Standards CAR 724.29 and CAR 725.37:

• IFR MOCAs: minimum 2000 feet above highest obstacle within 10 miles of centreline
• Night VFR: minimum 1000 feet above highest obstacle within 3 miles of centreline

Aviation Occurences

Reference AIM GEN 3.3

Accidents:

• a person is killed or sustains serious injury
• on board
• direct contact with any part
• exposure to jet blast / rotor downwash / prop wash
• the aircraft sustains structural failure or damage which adversely affects the structural strength of the aircraft
• the aircraft is missing or inaccessible

Mandatory Reportable Incidents:
Incident for aircraft with MCTOW greater than 2250 kg or operating under Part VII where:

• engine fails or is shut-down as precautionary measure
• power train transmission gearbox malfunction
• smoke detected or fire occurs
• difficulties controlling aircraft (malfunction, weather, wake turbulence, vibration)
• aircraft fails to remain on runway, lands with gear retracted, drags a wingtip or engine pod
• crew incapacitation which poses a threat to safety
• depressurization requiring emergency descent
• fuel shortage requiring diversion or landing priority
• incorrect type or contaminated fuel
• collision, risk of collision, loss of separation
• emergency requiring priority handling or equipment on standby
• slung load released unintentionally or as precautionary measure
• dangerous good released in or from aircraft

What a Drag

Drag is the resistance of an object to moving through the air. 
There are two main types of drag:

INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is a by-product of producing lift.
Induced drag decreases with velocity.
It increases with weight and altitude (for a given speed)
It increases whenever the AOA increases.
It is related to the design of the wing and can be reduced by high aspect ratios and winglets.

PARASITE DRAG
All objects feel parasite drag when moving through a fluid.  
Parasite drag increases with velocity.
It decreases with altitude.
It is not affected by changes in AOA.
There are three types of parasite drag:

• Skin Friction: friction between air and surface of object
• Form Drag: drag resulting from air moving around a particular shape (i.e. is it streamlined?)
• Interference Drag: flows over two joined surfaces interfere with each other (i.e. wing and fuselage)

Pressurization

Reference Turbine Pilot's Flight Manual Chapter 5

HOW DOES IT WORK?
Bleed air from the engines is continually distributed to the cabin.  Outflow valves modulate the exhaust of cabin air to obtain the desired level of pressurization.  

DEFINITIONS

• Maximum Differential (max diff): the maximum ratio of cabin pressure to outside (ambient) air pressure that the aircraft can sustain.
• Positive Pressure Relief Valves (Safety Valves): vent excess pressure overboard if max diff is exceeded (prevents overpressurization)
• Negative Pressure Relief Valves: ensure cabin never falls below ambient pressure
• Dump Valves: allow pilots to manually vent in an emergency (i.e. smoke)

• Squat Switch: ensures aircraft is depressurized on the ground

Altimeter Setting and Operating Procedures

Reference AIM RAC 2.11 and 2.12

ALTIMETER SETTING REGION

CAR 602.35 

• Departure: altimeter setting at aerodrome, or if not available the elevation of the aerodrome
• Enroute: altimeter setting of nearest station along route
• Arrival: altimeter setting at destination

STANDARD PRESSURE REGION

CAR 602.36

• Departure: altimeter setting at aerodrome, or if not available the elevation of the aerodrome
• Enroute: immediately prior to reaching the intended flight level, set 29.92
• Arrival: altimeter setting at destination
• Holding: once descending below lowest flight level of hold, altimeter setting at destination

TRANSITION BETWEEN REGIONS

CAR 602.37

• the simplest way to think about this is to always change the altimeter in the standard pressure region, whether it is a lateral or vertical transition

Air Law Potpourri

I went through some practice questions about Air Law this morning and it emphasized my need to study even more!  Here are some things I'd forgotten:

TRAINING

• Instrument Training
• CAR 425.21: with a CPL or ATPL, you may give a licensed pilot instrument training towards an IFR rating provided you have and instrument rating and:
• instructor rating OR
• 500 hours PIC of which 100 must be on the same group of aircraft used for training (and for Group 1, at least 10 hours on the type used for training)

AIRSPACE

• Class F Restricted
• CAR 601.04: A pilot may fly through an active area:
• if authorized by appropriate person
• if it doesn't pose hazard to aircraft
• if it doesn't jeopardize national security

• CAR 602.145: VFR Flight in ADIZ
• VFR flight within or into the ADIZ requires a Defense Flight Plan or Defense Flight Itinerary to be filed.
• Must revise time/point of entry if more than +/- 5 minutes or 20 NM.

AIRPORTS

• Take-off Alternates (i.e. weather is above take-off minima but below landing minima for that aerodrome):
• CAR 704.26 Commuter: if authorized on air operator certificate
• CAR 705.34 Airline: within 60 minutes with OEI (twin) or 120 minutes with OEI (three or four engines or ETOPS)

• Dispatch Limitations:
• CAR 704.49 and CAR 705.60: must be able to land at destination and alternate within
• Turbo-jets: 60% of landing distance available (LDA)
• Turbo-props: 70% of LDA
• must be suitable runway for aircraft and conditions, and can't take credit for more than 50% of anticipated headwind or less than 150% of tailwind
• CAR 704.50 and CAR 705.61: for turbo-jets, if wet runway expected, the calculated runway requirement must be increased by an additional 15%. (Can be less if AFM includes info, but not shorter than what is required by 704.49 / 705.60).

SYSTEMS

• Altitude Alerting System or Device
• CAR 605.36: required for turbo-jets, with these exceptions:
• MEL, or if no MEL, being ferried to location with device
• flight tests, PPCs, training
• if failure after TO, until it reaches location where it can be repaired

• GPWS
• CAR 605.37: required for 704 and 705 turbo-jets with MCTOW of more than 15000 kg (33069 lbs) and authorized to carry more than 10 passengers (exception - MEL). 

• Standby Attitude Indicator
• CAR 605.41: required for Part VII turbo-jets (some exceptions).  Required for Part VII turbo-props configured for 10 or more passengers.
• CAR 625.41: must be installed on turbojet aircraft, and operate for 30 minutes in the event of a complete electrical system malfunction

Personnel Requirements - Airline

CAR 705.103 Designation of PIC and SIC
Designated by air operator.

CAR 705.104 Flight Attendant Requirements
Discussed in another post.

CAR 705.106 Pilot Qualifications

• appropriate license, ratings, endorsements
• within past 90 days:
• 3 take-offs and landings at controls
• 5 sectors
• training requirements
• valid PPC
• valid line check or line indoc
• fulfilled operator's training
• exceptions: training or ferry flight or authorized on air operator certificate

CAR 705.107 Flight Engineer and Second Officer Qualifications
Here are the basics:

• appropriate license and endorsements
• check ride with operator, or 50 hours in past 6 months on type
• completed line indoc
• fulfilled operator's training

CAR 705.108 Crew Pairing
Based on combined experience.

CAR 705.111 Route and Aerodrome Qualifications
Must have been flight crew or observer along same route within the last 12 months or else have received training and demonstrated adequate knowledge.

CAR 705.113 Validity Period

• line check valid for 1 year
• PPC valid for 6 months (1 year if approved 6-month recurrent training completed)
• dispatcher competency check valid for 1 year
• if renewed within 90 days prior, new date is 6/12 months after old date
• validity can be extended up to 60 days

Personnel Requirements - Commuter

CAR 704.106 Minimum Crew (Commuter)
If you have 10 or more passengers, or are carrying passengers in IFR flight, two pilots are required.

CAR 704.107 Designation of PIC and SIC
Designated by air operator.

CAR 704.108 Flight Crew Member Qualifications
Here are the basics:

• appropriate license and ratings
• 3 take-offs and landings within the past 90 days
• valid PPC
• ground training complete
• exceptions: training or ferry flight or authorization on air operator certificate

Other important things:

• to fly IFR with passengers as PIC, you need at least 1200 TT
• to fly VFR as PIC, you need at least 500 TT
• to flight Night VFR with passengers as PIC, you need an instrument rating

CAR 704.109 Qualifications of Operational Control Personnel

• requires training and demonstration of knowledge
• 3 months recency requirement

CAR 704.110 Check Authority

CAR 704.111 Validity Period
PPCs are valid for one year.  They can be renewed up to 90 days prior with same expiration.  They can be extended for up to 60 days.

Bumping along

Reference AIM MET 3.7 Turbulence Reporting Criteria

Intensity:

• light
• turbulence: momentary, slight changes in altitude/attitude
• chop: slight, rapid, rhythmic bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude/attitude
• moderate
• turbulence: greater than light, aircraft remains in positive control, variations in IAS
• chop: greater than light, rapid bumps/jolts without appreciable changes in aircraft altitude/attitude
• severe
• large, abrupt changes in altitude/attitude
• large variations in IAS
• momentary loss of control

Frequency:

• occasional (<1/3 of the time)
• intermittent
• continuous (>2/3 of the time)

Report:

• location
• time
• intensity
• in or near cloud
• altitude
• type of aircraft
• duration (if applicable)

High level turbulence not associated with cumuliform clouds should be reported as CAT.

De-icing and Anti-icing

Types of Fluids

• Type I
• minimum 80% glycol
• relatively low viscosity
• very limited anti-icing protection against re-freezing but does not protect against further accumulation
• Type II
• minimum 50% glycol
• high viscosity
• effective anti-icing
• for aircraft with Vr > 100 kts; shears off on take-off
• potential to lose effectiveness if improperly applied
• Type III
• properties between Type I and Type II
• for aircraft with Vr < 100 kts
• Type IV
• same fluid specifications as Type II, but longer holdover times
• dyed green to aid consistent application

Holdover Time

• the estimated time that the application of de-icing/anti-icing fluid will prevent the formation of frost, ice, or the accumulation of snow on treated surfaces of an aircraft
• begins when the final application of de-icing/anti-icing fluid commences, and expires when the fluid loses its effectiveness

Frozen Contaminants

Reference AIM AIR 2.12 Flight Operations in Winter

Factors affecting contamination and hold-over time:

• ambient temperature
• aircraft surface temperature
• de-icing / anti-icing fluid type, temperature and concentration
• relative humidity
• wind speed and direction

Cold-Soaking Phenomenon

• fuel temperature affects wing surface temperature
• cold-soaking at altitude means fuel in tanks may be much colder than ambient temperature after landing
• clear ice or frost may form on some aircraft on wing areas above fuel tanks, especially in conditions of high relative humidity

Volcanic Ash

You may recall the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajokull in April 2010 caused massive disruptions to air travel in Europe.

Reference AIM AIR 2.6 and AIM MET 2.5

There are numerous hazards associated with volcanic ash:

• damage to surfaces, windshields, powerplants
• read about KLM 867 which had a quadruple engine failure near Anchorage Alaska in 1989
• contamination of heating, ventilation, hydraulic and electronic systems
• adverse effects on weight and balance

Ash can rapidly reach heights in excess of FL600, and weather radar is not effective in detecting it.

The best preventative measure is avoidance, although this could be difficult in IMC or at night.  "St. Elmo's fire is usually a telltale sign of a night encounter, although rapid onset of engine problems may be the first indication."  Refer to PIREPs, SIGMETS and NOTAMs and advice ATC if an eruption or ash is observed to help warn others. 

Radiocommunications

The key to this section is common sense and good airmanship (as with so many other parts of flying!).

CAR 602.136 Continuous Listening Watch

• maintain listening watch on appropriate frequency
• establish communication with appropriate ATC, FSS, etc. when required

CAR 602.137 Two-way Radio communication Failure in IFR Flight

• in controlled airspace:
• maintain listening watch on appropriate frequency
• squawk 7600
• attempt to contact other ATS facilities or aircraft to relay info
• if unable to make contact, comply with procedures in CAP / CFS (unless other procedures were given by ATC)

Reference also AIM RAC 6.3.2:

• if VMC, or if VMC is encountered, remain VFR and land as soon as practicable (not the same as 'as soon as possible' - use good judgement)
• if IMC:
• Route:
• route last assigned and acknowledged
• if being vectored, go directly to fix/route/airway specified in clearance
• if no assigned route, use advised/expected
• if no advised/expected, use what has filed on flight plan
• Altitude: use highest of:
• altitude last assigned and acknowledged
• minimum IFR altitude
• expected in a further clearance
• Descent and approach: commence descent at most recent time of:
• calculated ETA
• ETA last notified and acknowledged
• EAT last received and acknowledged
• if assigned a hold, commence approach at EAT or EFC
• if cleared for a STAR, proceed to FAF via
• published routing
• from radar vectors direct fix for straight-in or full procedure
• CLOSED RNAV STAR as published for straight-in
• OPEN RNAV STAR as published to DTW and then turn to FACF to intercept for straight-in

Reference AIM COM 5.15: As a last resort, PIC may attempt to contact ATS using conventional cellphone or satellite phone.

CAR 602.138 Two-way Radio communication Failure in VFR Flight

• in class B, C or D:
• leave airspace (by landing or else shortest route)
• squawk 7600
• inform ATC ASAP of actions taken

Reference also AIM RAC 4.4.8: if you are outside of class B, C, D, you may enter and land if there is no nearby suitable aerodrome available.  See NORDO arrival procedures in AIM RAC 4.4.5.

Formation, Aerobatics, and jumping out of a perfectly good airplane

I flew skydivers one summer.  It's hard to say it was a job... more like a volunteer position.  But I never jumped myself.  Oh yes, I think it would be fun and thrilling, but it's also quite risky and I was content to remain in the aircraft (especially since I was the pilot!)

CAR 602.25 Entering or Leaving an Aircraft in Flight

• need permission of PIC
• PIC shall not permit unless
• leaving using a parachute
• CAR 702.19 (helicopter ops)
• CAR 603.02 (special aviation event certificate) or CAR 603.67 (special flight operations certificate)

CAR 602.26 Parachute Descents

• prohibited in controlled airspace / air routes, and over built-up areas and open-air assemblies unless you have a special flight operations - parachuting certificate as per CAR 603.37

This takes us into the realm of airshows, and while they are not the only place where formation flight and aerobatics take place, this would be a good time to talk about such activities.  This is also covered in AIM RAC 1.11.

CAR 603.01 Certificate Requirements for Special Aviation Events

• cannot conduct a special aviation event unless you comply with the provisions of a special flight operations certificate - special aviation event

CAR 602.24 Formation Flight

• PICs must make arrangements beforehand
• if in a control zone, PICs must coordinate with ATC

CAR 602.27 Aerobatic Maneuvewrs - Prohibited Areas and Flight Conditions

• No person operating an aircraft shall conduct aerobatic manoeuvres
• over a built-up area or an open-air assembly of persons;
• in controlled airspace, except in accordance with a special flight operations certificate issued pursuant to section 603.67;
• when flight visibility is less than three miles; or
• below 2,000 feet AGL, except in accordance with a special flight operations certificate issued pursuant to section 603.02 or 603.67.

CAR 602.28 Aerobatic Maneuvers with Passengers

• PIC must have:
• at least 10 hours dual instruction conducting aerobatics or 20 hours conducting aerobatics
• at least 1 hour conducting aerobatics in the previous 6 months

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

Reference AIM SAR 3.0

Categories of ELTs

• A or AD: automatic ejectable or automatic deployable
• F or AF: fixed or automatic fixed
• AP: automatic portable
• P: personal
• W or S: water-activated or survival

CAR 605.38 ELT

• relevance to ATPL: large multi-engine turbojet airplanes engaged in air transport service with passengers require two ELTs (type W or S) when operating over water at a distance from land which requires life rafts (recall CAR 602.63 for life raft requirements)

CAR 605.39 Use of ELTs

• you can operate without a serviceable ELT if it is removed and repaired ASAP and the aircraft is placarded.
• ELT must be replaced within 10 days for 704 and 705 (30 days for everyone else)
• if you require 2 ELTs and they are both unserviceable: repair and replace the first ASAP, 10 days grace for the second

CAR 605.40 ELT Activation

• the only reason an ELT should be activated is in the event of an emergency, or testing (5 seconds only during the first 5 minutes of any hour)
• in the event of inadvertent activation, advise ATC / FSS / aerodrome and switch off

Note from AIM SAR 3.8: Unlike traditional 121.5/243 MHz ELTS, 406 MHz ELTs and their associated cockpit remote switch should be tested in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions only.

Pilot Response to Signals - notify nearest ATS:

• position, altitude and time first heard and contact lost
• ELT signal strength and did it cease suddenly or fade

Downed Aircraft Procedures:

• switch ELT on ASAP and do not cycle or switch off until positively located
• raising ELT from ground level to 8 ft may increase range by 20-40%
• if in an uninhabited area, stay with aircraft and ELT (more visible than people), have smoke/flares/signal fires read to attract SAR

Air Traffic Surveillance

Reference AIM COM 7.0

Recall: RADAR = RAdio Detection and Ranging (i.e. what's out there, which direction, and how far away?)

Primary Returns

• computes target positions by determining range and azimuth of reflected radio frequency energy
• passive - does not rely on info from aircraft
• uses:
• TSR (terminal surveillance radar) - short range (80 NM) to complement SSR
• PAR (Precision Approach Radar) - approach aid
• ASDE (Airport Surface Detection Equipment) - high def for aircraft and vehicles on manoeuvring areas
• Weather Radar - monitor hazardous weather conditions

Secondary Returns

• determines aircraft range by measuring the interval between transmitting an interrogation to and receiving a reply from an airborne transponder
• uses:
• enroute control - long range (200 NM)
• terminal control - in conjunction with PSR

ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast)

• uses aircraft avionics, satellites and/or ground infrastructure to relay a range of aircraft parameters to ATC
• automatic (no external stimulus required) but dependent (relies on aircraft avionics)

Canadian Domestic Routes

Reference AIM RAC 12.6

Use of Preferred Routes

• provides planning guidance, minimizes route changes, more efficient
• strongly encouraged, but not mandatory
• published in CFS

RNAV Routes

• Q-routes: high-level
• T-routes: low-level controlled 
• upward from 2200 AGL
• 10 NM each side of centre with MOCA protection 6 NM each side of centre
• L-routes: low-level uncontrolled
• MOCA protection 6 NM each side of centre
• Magnetic Reference Bearing published in SDA (reference only; RNAV systems will fly true course)

Position Reporting on Random Routes in NCA

• north-south: every 5 degrees of latitude with whole/half degree of longitude
• east-west (south of 75N): whole/half degrees of latitude with each 10 degrees of longitude
• east west (north of 75 N): whole/half degrees of latitude with each 20 degrees of longitude
• and of course, as requested by ATS

CMNPS = Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (Reference AIM RAC 12.5)

• Laterally this includes the ACA, NCA, and a small portion of the SCA
• Vertical dimensions are FL330 to FL410

Polar Routes (Reference AIM RAC 12.6.7)

• aircraft need CMNPS certification
• must file designated polar fixes on the Achorage/Russian border but are otherwise random in Canadian airspace
• routing should be filed with a fix every 5 degrees of latitude

Transoceanic Flights

GOTA, RVSM, CMNPS, SLOP... it looks like we're having Alphabet soup for lunch!

CAR 602.39 Transoceanic Flights
If you want to fly a single engine aircraft or multi-engine that cannot maintain flight in the event of an engine failure over the high seas:

• pilot needs an instrument rating
• aircraft equipped as per CAR 605.18 + HF radio + hypothermia protection for each person on board
• sufficient fuel as per CAR 602.88 + additional 10%

Reference AIM RAC 11.0 North Atlantic Operations and ICAO NAT Doc 007

NAT MNPS = North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications

• compliance with NAT MNPS airspace is required by all aircraft operating between 
• FL285 and FL420 AND
• between 27 N and the North Pole AND
• Oceanic Control Areas: Reykjavik, Gander, New York, Shanwick, Santa Maria
• aircraft must be equipped with two fully functioning long range navigation systems (LRNS).  A LRNS may be one of the following:
• one Inertial Navigation System (INS)
• one Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
• one navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System (IRS) or any other sensor system complying with the MNPS requirement.
• for eastbound and westbound traffic
• south of 70 N, the planned tracks shall be defined at each half or whole degree of latitude and each 10 degrees of longitude
• north of 70 N, the planned tracks shall be defined at latitudes expressed in degrees/minutes and each 20 degrees of longitude
• for northbound and southbound traffic
• the planned tracks shall be defined at latitudes spaced at 5 degrees and whole degrees of longitude